The1964 Summer Olympics, officially theGames of the XVIII Olympiad(Japanese:第18回オリンピック競技大会,Hepburn:Dai Jūhachi-kai Orinpikku Kyōgi Taikai), were an internationalmulti-sport eventheld from 10 to 24 October 1964 inTokyo,Japan. Tokyo had been awarded the organization of the1940 Summer Olympics, but this honor was subsequently passed toHelsinkidue to Japan'sinvasion of China, before ultimately being cancelled due toWorld War II.
The 1964 Summer Games were the first Olympics held in Asia, and marked the first timeSouth Africa was excludeddue to itsapartheid systemin sports.[2][3]Until 1964, South Africa had been allowed to enter segregated teams conforming to the country's racial classifications. The international community now accepted the arguments put forward by anti-apartheid campaigners – most notably the South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee (SAN-ROC) – that by accepting this loop-hole, the Olympic Committee was tacitly endorsing the racist policies of South Africa government. The IOC demanded a single multi-racial team be sent to Tokyo and when the South African government refused, they were excluded from participating. The country was, however, allowed to compete at the1964 Summer Paralympics, also held in Tokyo,its Paralympic Games debut.[4]Tokyo was chosen as the host city during the 55thIOC Sessionin West Germany on 26 May 1959.
The 1964 Games were also the first to be telecast internationally without the need for tapes to be flown overseas, as they had been for the1960 Olympicsfour years earlier. The games were telecast to the United States usingSyncom3, the firstgeostationarycommunication satellite, and from there to Europe usingRelay 1.[5]These were also the first Olympic Games to have color telecasts, albeit partially. Certain events such as the sumo wrestling and judo matches, sports popular in Japan, were tried out usingToshiba's new colour transmission system, but only for the domestic market. The entire 1964 Olympic Games was chronicled in the ground-breaking 1965 sports documentary filmTokyo Olympiad, directed byKon Ichikawa.
The games were scheduled for mid-October to avoid the city's midsummer heat and humidity and the Septembertyphoonseason.[6]The previous Olympics inRomein1960started in late August and experienced hot weather. The following games in1968inMexico Cityalso began in October. The 1964 Olympics were also the last to use a traditional cinder track for the track events. Since 1968, a smooth, synthetic, all-weather track has been used. The United States won the most gold medals, while the Soviet Union won the most overall medals.
Kumi-daikowas first exhibited to a worldwide audience at the Festival of Arts presentation.[13]
Judoandvolleyball, both popular sports in Japan, were introduced to the Olympics.[14]Japan won gold medals in three judo events, but DutchmanAnton Geesinkwon the Open category. TheJapanese women's volleyball teamwon the gold medal, with the final being broadcast live.
Reigning world championOsamu Watanabecapped off his career with a gold medal for Japan in freestyle wrestling, surrendering no points and retiring from competition as the only undefeated Olympic champion to date at 189–0.[16]
Soviet gymnastLarisa Latyninawon two gold medals, a silver medal and two bronze medals. She had held the record for most Olympic medals at 18 (nine gold, five silver, four bronze) which stood until broken by American swimmerMichael Phelpsin2012.[17]
CzechoslovakiangymnastVěra Čáslavskáwon three gold medals, including the individual all-around competition, crowning her the new queen over the reigning champion Larisa Latynina.[18]
15-year-oldSharon Stouderwon four medals in women's swimming, three of them gold.
New Zealand'sPeter Snellbecame the second person (after Australian Edwin Flack in 1896) to win gold medals in both the 800 m and 1500 m in the same Olympics.[23]
Billy Mills, an Indigenous-American runner from the Oglala Sioux tribe, became the only American to win the gold in the men's 10,000 m.[24]
British runnerAnn Packerset a world record in becoming the surprise winner of the 800 m, having never run the distance at international level before the Games.[25]
Bob Hayeswon the 100 metre title in a time of 10.06 seconds, equaling the world record, and set the current record for the fastest relay leg in the 4×100 m.[26]
This was the last Summer Olympics to use acinderrunning track for athletic events, and the first to usefiberglasspoles forpole vaulting.[28]
Zambiadeclared its independence on the day of the closing ceremony of the 1964 Summer Olympics, thereby becoming the first country ever to have entered an Olympic games as one country, and left it as another.[29]This was celebrated in the ceremony itself by the team using a placard with "Zambia" instead of the "Northern Rhodesia" placard from the opening ceremony. Zambia was the only team to use a placard in the closing ceremony.[30]
The start of operations for the first Japanese "bullet train" (theTōkaidō Shinkansen) betweenTokyo StationandShin-Ōsaka Stationwas scheduled to coincide with the Olympic games. The first regularly scheduled train ran on 1 October 1964, just nine days before the opening of the games, transporting passengers 515 kilometres or 320 miles in about four hours, and connecting the three major metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka.[31]
The 1964 Summer Olympics featured 19 different sports encompassing 25 disciplines, and medals were awarded in 163 events. In the list below, the number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.
Ninety-three nations were represented at the 1964 Games. Sixteen nations made their first Olympic appearance in Tokyo: Algeria, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire (asIvory Coast), Dominican Republic, Libya (but it withdrew before the competition), Madagascar, Malaysia, Mali, Mongolia, Nepal, Niger, Northern Rhodesia, Senegal, and Tanzania (asTanganyika).
Indonesiawas banned from the 1964 Olympics, due to its refusal to allow Israeli and Taiwanese athletes visas at the1962 Asian Games. Indonesia was originally banned on the meeting which took place inLausanneon 7 February 1963[33]The decision was changed on 26 June 1964 citing the changed position of theGovernment of Indonesiatowards the Tokyo games.[33]
October10thSat11thSun12thMon13thTue14thWed15thThu16thFri17thSat18thSun19thMon20thTue21stWed22ndThu23rdFri24thSatEventsDaily medal events14317191212131791413272163Cumulative total158254456688198107121134161163October10thSat11thSun12thMon13thTue14thWed15thThu16thFri17thSat18thSun19thMon20thTue21stWed22ndThu23rdFri24thSatTotal events
These games were the first to be telecast internationally. The games were telecast to the United States usingSyncom 3,[35]the firstgeostationarycommunication satellite, and from there to Europe usingRelay 1, an older satellite which allowed only 15–20 minutes of broadcast during each of its orbits.[36][37]Total broadcast time of programs delivered via satellite was 5 hours 41 minutes in the United States, 12 hours 27 minutes in Europe, and 14 hours 18 minutes in Canada. Pictures were received via satellite in the United States, Canada, and 21 countries in Europe.[38]Several broadcasters recorded some sports from Japan and flown over to their countries. While the agreement to use satellite to transmit the games live to the United States was a proud achievement for the American government andHughes Corporationwhich developed the satellites, NBC the rights holder had little interest in the project.[39]NBC's participation was due to pressure from the Under-Secretary of State for Political AffairsAverell Harriman, and NBC intended to record the live transmissions for later use in sponsored shows.[39]NBC broadcast the opening ceremonies live on the East coast of the United States, but delayed the broadcast on the West coast to 1:00 a.m. soJohnny Carson'sTonight Showwould not be interrupted.[39]When pressed on the issue NBC announced there would be no more live telecasts which angered the American State Department which saw the broadcasts as a matter of national prestige, and also the Hughes Aircraft Company who won the bid to build the satellite system overRCAwhich owned NBC.[40]
TRANSPAC-1, the first trans-Pacificcommunications cablefrom Japan to Hawaii was also finished in June 1964 in time for these games. Before this, most communications from Japan to other countries were via shortwave.[38]
The start of operations for the first Japanese bullet train (theTokaido Shinkansen) betweenTokyo StationandShin-Ōsaka Stationwas scheduled to coincide with the Olympic games. The first regularly scheduled train ran on 1 October 1964, just nine days before the opening of the games, transporting passengers 515 kilometers (320 mi) in about four hours, and connecting the three major metropolitan areas of Tokyo,Nagoya, andOsaka.
Some already-planned upgrades to both highways and commuter rail lines were rescheduled for completion in time for these games. Of the eight main expressways approved by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government in 1959, No. 1, No. 4 and a portion of No. 2 and No. 3 were completed for the games. Two subway lines totaling 22 kilometers (14 mi) were also completed in time for the games, and the port of Tokyo facilities were expanded to handle the anticipated traffic.[41]
The Oxford Olympics Studyestablished the outturn cost of the Tokyo 1964 Summer Olympics atUS$282 million in 2015-dollars.[42]This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i)operational costsincurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii)direct capital costsincurred by the host city and country or private investors to build, e.g., the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs arenotincluded, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The cost for Tokyo 1964 compares with costs of US$4.6 billion for Rio 2016, US$40–44 billion for Beijing 2008 and US$51 billion for Sochi 2014, the most expensive Olympics in history. Average cost for Summer Games since 1960 is US$5.2 billion.
The 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo celebrated Japan's progress and reemergence on the world stage. The new Japan was no longer a wartime enemy, but a peaceful country that threatened no one, and this transformation was accomplished in fewer than 20 years.[43]
To host such a major event, Tokyo's infrastructure needed to be modernized in time for large numbers of expected tourists. Enormous energy and expense was devoted to upgrading the city's physical infrastructure, including new buildings, highways, stadiums, hotels, airports and trains. There was a new satellite to facilitate live international broadcast. Multiple train and subway lines, a large highway building project, and theTokaido Shinkansen, the fastest train in the world, were completed.Tokyo International Airportand thePort of Tokyowere modernized. International satellite broadcasting was initiated, and Japan was now connected to the world with a new undersea communications cable.[38]TheYS-11, a commercial turboprop plane developed in Japan, was used to transport the Olympic Flame within Japan.[44]For swimming, a new timing system started the clock by the sound of the starter gun and stopped it with touchpads. The photo finish using a photograph with lines on it was introduced to determine the results of sprints. All of this demonstrated that Japan was now part of the first world and a technological leader, and at the same time demonstrated how other countries might modernize.[43]In preparation for the games, 200,000 stray cats and dogs were rounded-up and euthanized.[45]
Unfortunately, however, the construction projects resulted in environmental damage, forced relocations for residents, and loss of industry. In addition, corruption by politicians and construction companies resulted in cost overruns and shoddy work.[45]
Although public opinion about the Olympics in Japan had initially been split, by the time the games started almost everyone was behind them. The broadcast of the opening ceremony was watched by over 70% of the viewing public, and the women's volleyball team's gold medal match was watched by over 80%.[43]
As with many other Olympics, observers later stated that 1964 Olympic preparation and construction projects had had a negative effect on the environment and lower income people.[46]
TheCary GrantfilmWalk, Don't Runwas filmed during the Tokyo Olympics, and set in Tokyo during the Olympics. A message at the beginning of the film thanks the Japanese Government and Tokyo Police for putting up with them filming in crowded Tokyo.
TheStudio GhiblifilmFrom Up on Poppy Hilltakes place one year before the Tokyo Olympics and refers to the upcoming games. The official poster can be seen several times in the film.
Tokyo attempted to bring the Olympic Games back to the city, having unsuccessfullybidfor the2016 Summer Olympics, which were awarded toRio de Janeiro. Tokyo was chosen to host the2020 Summer OlympicsandParalympicsgames, making it the first Asian city to host the games twice.[47]Theworldwide coronavirus pandemic, however, forced the organizers to postpone the games to summer 2021, the first time that an Olympic Games was cancelled or rescheduled during peacetime.
TheJapan SocietyFall 2019 exhibition,Made in Tokyo: Architecture and Living, 1964/2020,is an architectural exhibition that examines the social, cultural, economic, and political impacts of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics on the modernization of the Tokyo landscape (Homes, Offices, Retail Businesses, Athletic Stadiums, Hotels, and Transportation Stations). The exhibition was curated by the Japanese architectural firmAtelier Bow-Wow.[48]
North Koreawithdrew its athletes from the 1964 Summer Olympics just before the Games were due to start, as theIOCwere refusing to accept any athletes who had participated in theGames of the New Emerging Forces(GANEFO) held inJakarta, Indonesia, in 1963.[49]ChinaandIndonesiaalso chose not to attend the Tokyo Games due to GANEFO issues.
^Griggs, Lee (28 October 1963)."A very dry run in Tokyo".Sports Illustrated: 64.Archivedfrom the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved17 February2014.
^Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016).The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games. Oxford: Saïd Business School Working Papers (Oxford: University of Oxford). pp. 9–13.SSRN2804554.
Organizing Committee for the Games of the XVIII Olympiad (1964).THE GAMES OF THE XVIII OLYMPIAD TOKYO 1964: The Official Report of the Organizing Committee. Organizing Committee for the Games of the XVIII Olympiad.
